Schumann’s Acculturation Model

Teaching Pronunciation:

Age-Related Considerations

              Martin R. Gitterman

   Lehman College and The Graduate Center

         The City University of New York

Teaching English Language Learners

Recommended methodology

                 --  has changed 

                           ---degree of focus on form

                 --  degree of flexibility a factor

                            ---individual variation

                                 (student and instructor)

Some Questions

1. What is the content to be taught?

2. What methodology  do I prefer?

3. What methodology do my students prefer?
4. What considerations go into making a decision?

  

Point:  Age of students should be a consideration.

              

Critical Components in Language Learning

Components

         -- Listening

          -- Speaking

          --  Reading

           -- Writing

Components are Linked

            -- Are not taught in isolation

            --  Are intertwined

                             --- reading and writing

                             ---  speaking and listening

                                    (just two examples)

The Speaking Component

1. Pronunciation
2. Public Speaking
3. Group Discussion
4. Conversation

Critical Point:  These activities are related.

Pronunciation Instruction:
Issues to Consider

1. Age of Learners
2. Goals
3. Method of Instruction

Note: These issues are related.

Critical Period Hypothesis

“There is evidence that the primary acquisition of language is predicated upon a certain

developmental stage which is quickly outgrown at the age of puberty.”

                (Lenneberg, 1967, p. 142)

Critical Period “.…. automatic acquisition from mere exposure to  a given language seems to disappear after  this age, and foreign languages have to be taught and learned through a conscious and labored effort.  Foreign accents cannot be overcome easily after puberty.”

          (Lenneberg, 1967, p. 176)

“There is no evidence for a biologically determined critical period for second-language acquisition, with the possible exception of accent.”

          (Hakuta, 1986, p. 232)

Scovel (1988)

1. A critical period exists only for accent.

      2. “It seems logical, therefore, to link the gradual loss of neuroplasticity, which is measured by actual physical changes in the brain, to a certain decline of, or constraint on, the ability to produce the most physical aspect of human language-the production of an extremely precise phonetic repertoire “ (p. 62).

“It is most likely that a combination of several explanations is required to completely

understand the effects of age on second language acquisition.”

               (Dulay, Burt, and Krashen, 1982, p. 95)

“Alternative explanations, with no basis in biology, refer to social/psychological factors  that are thought to co-vary with age, including motivational, affective/attitudinal,and input factors.”

            (Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson, 2003, p. 563)

Age-Related Matters

1. Many unresolved issues

            -critical v. sensitive period

            - particular ages

            - aspects of language affected

            - individual variation

  

    2.  Issue of Pronunciation

Goals in Teaching Pronunciation (Age-Related Factors)

1. Goals should be appropriate.

                      (what this means)

       2.   Progress should be assessed.

                       (means of assessing)

       3.    Students should be aware of goals.

                       (process of informing students)

Methodological Issues:
Form-Related Instruction

“There is now ample evidence that the effects of form-focused instruction are not restricted to careful language use but are also evident in free communication.”

                  (Ellis, 1997,  p. 83)

“ We have seen that direct instruction can help in a number of ways. It can lead to enhanced accuracy, it can help learners progress through developmental stages more rapidly, and it can destabilize interlanguage grammars that have fossilized. However, direct instruction is not always successful nor are its effects always durable.”

                 (Ellis, 1997, pp. 87-88)

“….. both research and teaching experience have led to a growing consensus that instruction is most effective when it includes attention to both form and meaning.”

             (Spada and Lightbown, 2008, p. 184)

“ ….. the challenge is to discover the conditions under which isolated and integrated FFI respectively are most appropriate.”

             (Spada and Lightbown, 2008, p. 185)

Spada and Lightbown (2008)

     -- research suggests age may be a factor in FFI

White (2008)

     -- addresses methodology and dialects

Teaching Pronunciation: Approaches Differ

One approach—

Paulston and Bruder (1976) assert that a lesson in pronunciation should include “…

(1) selection and presentation of the sound feature to be taught,

 (2)recognition of the new sound and discrimination

between similar sounds and (3) production of the

sound feature, first in words and phrases and finally

(4) in a communicative situation” (p. 94).

Another Approach—

Celce-Murcia (1987) states, “I do not want to leave the reader with the impression that the

traditional techniques are never applicable. On a limited, individual basis, it may in fact be useful for a teacher to assign manipulative drills to a well- motivated student who cannot master a given sound or contrast despite the use of communicative exercises” (p. 10).

One Theoretical Framework:
The Monitor Model

  1. The acquisition/learning distinction

                 -- the issue of awareness

  2.  The function of the Monitor

                 -- its role

                  -- types of users

                          (Krashen, 1982)

Questions to Consider

1. How is the Monitor related to teaching pronunciation?

2. What are the implications for teaching pronunciation?

Researchers Differ

Krashen and Terrell (1983)

    “If formal teaching has such a limited effect on pronunciation, then what we can do is simply provide  an environment where acquisition of phonology can take place and provide an atmosphere where students can feel comfortable and where they will be more prone to perform their competence” (pp. 89-90).

    “ …..it is not clear that such exercises actually improve the pronunciation of most students,  but some students believe them to be helpful. Since such rules are learned consciously, however,  they will be available only in situations in which the students can

         monitor their speech easily” (p. 90).

    

Yorio (1994)

             -- personal account

             -- the issue of the “super Monitor user”

  “The range of linguistic items that I monitor is quite extensive:  vowels and vowel sequences, particularly those vowels that exhibit contrasts different from Spanish……..; consonants…..;  phonological rules (vowel length before voiced consonants, nasals in final position, vowel reduction, …………..; morphology (past tense variants……” (p. 128).

Crawford (1987)

“From a theoretical perspective, it would seem that Krashen has underestimated the role of conscious learning within the monitoring device  as an active L2 acquisition mechanism. This notion is implicit in an alternative theoretical model of L2 learning proposed by Bialystok, who claims that acquisition may also occur via transfer of information from explicit linguistic knowledge (learning) to implicit linguistic knowledge (acquisition)” (pp. 109-110).

-- More research needed in pronunciation teaching

Folse (2009)

              -- focus on form

               -- importance of communication

 

“A  common technique for practicing difficult  sounds  involves using minimal pairs…….With minimal pairs, it is important to use example words that not only illustrate the pronunciation contrast but are useful and relevant to your students” (p. 238).

Points

1. Age has an impact on language learning.
2. One should consider age in deciding on methodology.

3. Consider the aspects of language being taught (e.g., pronunciation).
4. Retain a degree of flexibility in teaching.

Teaching Pronunciation: Some Recommendations               

1. Include a reasonable amount of formal instruction.
2. Include both productive and receptive skills.
3. Recognize the importance of natural communication.
4. Assess progress of students. Fine-tune methodology,  as needed.

 

Recommended Activities

 Applied Phonetics

           1. Classification of Consonants

                   place of articulation

                   manner of articulation

                   voicing

              [p]  voiceless, bilabial, stop

            2. Classification of Vowels

                    tongue height

                    part of tongue

                    lip rounding

               [i]  high, front, unrounded

Point: Practice sounds in different  contexts (e.g., word initial).

Receptive Exercises

Sample Receptive Exercises

              -- dictation

              -- circle the word that is different

              -- write the word that is different

             

Points: 

             1. Keep goals in mind.

             2. Remind students that there is nothing

                  wrong with a foreign accent.

Public Speaking

1. Informative Speaking

           Sample Specific Purpose: To inform the

               audience about famous museums in X.

2. Persuasive Speaking

           Sample Specific Purpose: To persuade the

               audience to vote for X.

Group Discussion

Problem-Solving Discussion

   Sample Question: What grading system should be instituted at X?

   Sample Question:  Which person should be hired for job X?

Other Activities

1. Role-Playing
2. Interviewing
3. Oral Interpretation

Natural Communication Exercises

1. Are of interest to students.
2. Help develop conversational skills.
3. Provide an opportunity to assess pronunciation

Final Points

1. Pronunciation improvement is an important component of ESL instruction.

2. One should consider the age of learners.
3. Include some traditional manipulative drills.  (age-related issue)

4. Recognize the value of communicative exercises.

       5.   Be aware of theory, but consider experience also.

References

Celce-Murcia, M. (1987).  Teaching pronunciation as communication. In J. Morley (Ed.), Current

Perspectives on Pronunciation (pp. 1-12). Washington D.C.: TESOL.

Crawford, W. (1987). The pronunciation monitor: L2 acquisition considerations and pedagogical

            priorities. In J. Morley (Ed.), Current Perspectives on Pronunciation (pp. 101-121).

 Washington D.C.: TESOL.

Dulay, H., Burt, M. , and Krashen, S. (1982). Language Two.  New York: Oxford University Press.

Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Folse, K.  (2009).  The Art of Teaching Speaking:  Research and  Pedagogy for the ESL/EFL                       Classroom.  USA:  University of Michigan Press.

 Hakuta, K. (1986). Mirror of Language: The Debate on Bilingualism. New York: Basic Books.

Hyltenstam, K. and Abrahamsson, N. (2003). Maturational constraints in SLA. In C. Doughty and M. Long (Eds.),  The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 539-588). Malden,

            Massachusetts: Blackwell.

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.

Krashen, S. and Terrell, T. (1983). The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom.

            Oxford: Pergamon.

Lenneberg, E. (1967). Biological Foundations of Language. New York:  John Wiley & Sons.

Paulston, C. and Bruder, M. (1976).  Teaching English as a Second Language:  Techniques and

Procedures. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Winthrop.

Scovel, T. (1988). A Time to Speak: A Psycholinguistic Inquiry into the Critical Period for Human

            Speech.  Cambridge, Massachusetts: Newbury House.

Spada, N. and Lightbown, P. (2008).  Form-focused instruction: Isolated or integrated? TESOL

            Quarterly, 42, 181-207.

White, N. (2008). Increasing Efficacy in Academic English Instruction:  A Case Study Seeking the

 Correct Balance Between Contrastive Analysis Focus on Form and Sociolonguistic

Awareness Raising. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The City University of New York

Yorio, C. (1994). The case for learning. In R. Barasch and C. James (Eds.).  Beyond the Monitor

 Model: Comments on Current Theory and Practice in Second Language Acquisition (pp.

 125-137). Boston, Massachusetts: Heinle & Heinle.